A broad view of the country shows four separate and well-defined regions. The mountain and hill districts of the Himalayan ranges, and the slopes of the Afghanistan and Baluchistan highlands form the northern
and northwestern borders. Then
come the great river plains of
the Indus, the Ganges, and the
lower Brahmaputra, forming a broad
belt from the head of the Arabian Sea to the head of the Bay of Bengal.
Next is the great tableland known as the Deccan, which includes the southern half of India; it is bounded
by the range of hills known as the Eastern Ghats (literally,"stepping stones")
sloping down to the Coromandel Coast,
and by the Western Ghats
descending to the famous
Malabar Coast. On the other side of the Bay of Bengal, but
politically a part of India,
is Burma, a wild and hilly
region south of the Brahmaputra valley
and extending far down along the west side of the Malay Peninsula, skirting the possessions of Siam.
Extent— North to South, 1,900 miles; east to west,
2,000 miles. Area, about 1,800,000 square miles. Population
about 350.000,000.
Physical Features. —Himalaya Mountains, the highest in the
world (30,000 to 29,000
feet) ; Vindhya Range and Eastern and Western Ghats,
inclosing the Deccan plateau,
deserts in Sind and Rajputana. Principal rivers:
Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra.
Product's.—
Millet, rice, wheat, barley,
oil-seeds, cotton, jute, sugar,
indigo, coco-nuts, tobacco, tea and opium, cotton and silk manufactures, metal work; coal, gold,
and petroleum.
Chief Cities.— Calcutta [1,385,000 population), Bombay (1,175,000;, Madras (650,000),
Hyderabad (400,000), and Delhi, the capital [440,000).
History.—
Aryan invasion, about 1500 b.c- ; rise to
Buddhism 6Õ th century b.c. ; Alexander the Great's conquest
of the north-west, 327 b.c.; Mohammedan conquest ¤A.D. 1001: establishment
of Mogul empire, 1526; English
East India Company obtained trading posts at Madras (1639), Bombay (1668), and
Calcutta (1696); battle oi Plassey established British
supremacy over the French, 1757; expansion of British India, 1774-1856 ; Indian Mutiny, 1857; British Crown
takes over government from East India Company, 1858.
The northernmost portion of India, and one of the most
important of the native states is Cashmere (Kashmir), which extends
over the first Himalayan ranges, and includes the famous Vale of Cashmere (see
Cashmere). Beyond the Indus, between Gash-mere and Afghanistan, stretches
the Northwest Frontier Province —a wild rocky region, which forms a
buffer between peaceful India and the untamed Afghan tribes. Here is the
approach to the famous Khyber Pass, scene of many bloody encounters, through
which a railway now runs. Even more wild and unsettled is Baluchistan, immediately
to the south, which borders on Persia as well as Afghanistan. Only the northern
part, about Quetta and the Bolan Pass, is
under direct British rule. Nepal and Bhutan, on the borders of Tibet, are
independent mountain states with foreign relations subject to British
control. In Nepal is found the highest mountain in the world, Mount
Everest; and here, too, are the famous fighting men, the Gurkhas, who volunteer in large numbers for service in the
British armies. These mountain states and border districts form a
picturesque background for the far more important river plains. Here
is a tract of level cultivation about
2,000 miles long, and from
200 to 4=00 miles broad, without a stone of any bind, scarcely a pebble. The soil
is composed of river sand and silt, washed down through countless
ages from the slopes of the mountain walls to the north.
The Indus at the west and
the Brahmaputra at the east have
their sources in Tibet behind
the snow peaks of the Himalayas,
at no great distance apart; and curving around in
opposite directions include in their embrace not only the main
Himalayan mountain chain but all that portion of northern India which
is properly known as Hindustan. This country, in turn saturated by warm
rain, chilled by light frosts, and
scorched by desert winds, is the cradle of ancient Indian civilization. The Ganges valley is one of the
most crowded regions in the world,
many extensive districts
supporting more than 600 persons
to the square mile, all of whom get their living directly
from the soil. By way of
contrast, Baluchistan is very sparsely populated indeed, having only about six persons to the square mile.
A HOME ON THE MOUNTAIN BORDER Perched like
eagles' nests on the steep slopes of the Himalayas, these small native houses are as much forts as dwellings. For this
borderland is disturbed by frequent tribal feuds and robber raids. When
the householder sees enemies approaching, he barricades
his door and urges the foe to move on, with
a gun muzzle thrust through one of those loopholes in the wall.
IndiaÕs rich plains region are the Punjab or " Land of the Five Rivers," Rajputana, the provinces of Oudh and Agra, the Bengal district and Assam.
The third
division of India, the peninsula known as the Deccan, offers a marked
contrast to the northern plains. The hill country begins not far south of
Delhi, and spreads fan-wise south-east and south-west;
while farther south a series of ranges crosses the peninsula from west to east. Close to the coast as they are,
the Western Ghats form the true
backbone of India; for from their rugged sides the whole country slopes
generally eastward; the rivers which rise in their narrow landward gorges flow
for the most part clear across the peninsula and empty into the Bay of
Bengal. The Eastern Ghats, on the other hand, are of no very great altitude,
for they average less than 1,000 feet. They are broken through in a great number of places by
rivers, both large and small, which cut deep gashes to the sea.
The central Deccan consists principally of rough hills, some covered with dense forests, others with
tall jungle grass, and still others swept bare by dry winds. At intervals are broad well-cultivated
plateaus, and the banks of the numerous streams are dotted with tiny irrigated
farms and cleared pasture lands.
The political divisions of southern India are more, confused than
are those of the north. The Bombay
Presidency includes the Sind region and more than 350 small native states.
Its chief city is Bombay, the second largest in India. East of the Bombay
Presidency lie the native states of the Central India Agency and the Central
Provinces under direct British rule. The
cities of Gwalior in the north
and Nagpur in the south are the most important. Farther
south and occupying the very heart of the Deccan are the dominions
of the Nizam
of Hyderabad, the largest and
most populous of the native
states.
The Madras Presidency, the largest of the British provinces, begins
south of the Bengal district,
includes the whole east coast to Cape Comorin, and extends to the west coast, almost completely surrounding the large
native state of Mysore (capital.
Bangalore), and crowding the states of Cochin and Travancore into the south-west
comer. This region, especially the Carnatic, is rich in historic
traditions. The city of Madras is the third largest in India, and extends for some distance along the Coromandel coast; while among the other important places may be mentioned Madura, Trichinopoly,
Calicut, Mysore, Nagapatum and Cuddalore.
-
The monsoons
are the salvation of the millions in India who live on the fruits of the
soil. There are two of these winds, the "great" or south-west
monsoon, which blows from June to October; and the
" lesser " or north-east monsoon, which blows
during November and December. A good monsoon season means plenty of food
for India, a bad monsoon means starvation, misery, and
death for thousands of helpless victims.
In general, southern India enjoys a more equable climate than the river
plains or mountain regions. The latter are subject to extremes of heat and cold, dryness and moisture.
In the Sind and the Thar desert are places where day after day in the summer the thermometer reaches F. IIO¡ in the shade,
and a variation of 70¡ in a day
is not uncommon.
The
scourge of malaria and other "Indian
fevers" claim a
greater number of victims each year than all other causes, including even
cholera and plague. Europeans
during the hottest weather usually seek the high altitudes of Simla, Cashmere, and elsewhere.
The
Himalayan climate is favourable to a tremendous
variety of plant life. Below the snow line are to be found vast fields of
rhododendrons, then thick forests of evergreens, and on the damp lower
slopes to the east a rank and tangled undergrowth of coarse grass, bushes,
cane-brakes, bamboo, and great trees, whose branches are thick with orchids.
A Region Rich in Fruits and Woods
The
plains region is notable for the babul, a species of acacia, the mango, the banyan, the plantain, and the betel-palm. The northern Deccan forests consist chiefly of
scrub trees, but in the south teak, sandalwood, and satinwood nourish
abundantly.
Wild
animals abound all over India, for religion forbids the majority of the people
to kill any living creature. The tiger is found in all the wilder forest
regions, and is responsible for about 500 deaths a year throughout the empire.
Lions, once plentiful in Hindustan, are now confined to the Kathiawar peninsula
between the Gulf of Cutch and the Gulf of Cambay. Bears are numerous in the
mountains, and leopards infect many of the more remote tracts.
Elephants still exist in the primeval forest's of the south-west,
but the ranks of the domestic elephants are mainly recruited in the hills of
Assam and Burma, where dwells also the rhinoceros.
The gaur
or Indian bison, the wild buffalo, and the wild pig offer exciting sport to the
hunter. The wolf, the jackal, the wild dog, and the striped hyena are
plentiful. Monkeys are numerous near settlements, and do great damage to crops-
The larger rivers are filled with crocodiles: snakes abound in all districts,
the cobra and the krait being the most dangerous, and causing thousands of
deaths annually. Insects are incredibly numerous. A few, such as the bee, the
silkworm, and the lac-insect, are encouraged for their useful products.
How the Country is Peopled
The population of India may be
roughly placed in five groups:
(1) The descendants of the earliest known inhabitants of India, sometimes
called Dravidians, who are represented by the savage Bhils
and Gonds of central and western India, and by the
Tamils of the south.
(2) The pure-blood descendants of the successive tides
of Aryan invaders who conquered the Dravidian inhabitants, and who are best
represented by the Rajputs.
(3) The great mass of Hindus formed by a mixture of the two
(4) The descendants of the Mohammedan
invaders who began pouring in the 7th. century.
(5) The Mongol or Tibetan types, which are found chiefly in the
extreme north - east and in the
Himalayas border regions.
The people of Dravidian stock are
short, dark, with curly
or wavy hair and broad noses. At the other extreme are the
Rajputs, tall, slender, and handsome.
The many separate languages of India can be
generally divided into those derived from the ancient Sanskrit and those from
the early Dravidian tongues, with a mixture of Malay and Chinese elements. In northern India the interstate and intertribal dialect is
Hindustani or Urdu, a blend of Persian with the dominant "Hindi" language—a pleasing combination. The chief religions of India are Hindu, Mohammedan, Buddhist, Sikh, Jain, Christian, and Parsee. Next to the crude beliefs of the primitive hill peoples, who see gods in rocks
and trees, Hinduism is the oldest religion, and includes in its numerous sects more than 200 million persons. Hinduism has
many forms, all of which are marked by a belief in many gods, and in universal reincarnation. The Sikhs form a religious
community whose history dates
back to the 16th century.
Their faith is a curious mixture of
Mohammedanism and Hinduism, and
for a time they constituted a powerful and formidable military brotherhood.
Today the Sikhs number somewhat more
than three millions.
The Jains, on the other hand, tend to
combine the Buddhist and Hindu religions. There are to-day about
1,250,000 Jains, and among them are many of
the richest and most influential of Indian merchants. Their
temples, among which are the famous ones on Mount Abu, are the
finest in all India. The Parsees are
descendants of Persian Zoroastrians
— fire and sun worshippers, who fled to India to escape the
Mohammedan massacres of the 7th century. They form now a rich merchant class of great
power, despite the fact that their total number is only
100,000.
The native Christians of India total about four millions, with
the Roman Catholics far
in the lead. The Mohammedans,
with over 77 millions, form the largest religious group next to the followers of Hinduism (see Mohammed). The Buddhists, once exceedingly powerful in the land, have virtually disappeared
from India proper; of the
11.000,000 counted in the empire today, all but about 300,000 are found in Burma. {See Buddha.)
The followers of Hinduism, which means at least two
- thirds of the population, are grouped into countless castes
which are half social, half religious. The caste system had its
foundation in the old Aryan law, which divided the people into four classes
—the priests or Brahmans, the warriors or Kshatriyas,
the farmers or Vaisyas, and the labourers or Sudras.
To-day these four original castes have been subdivided
again and again until it is impossible to tell the number. Estimates vary
between 2,000 and 3,000 distinct groups. The members of each handicraft,
such as potters, jewellers, etc., tend to form
separate castes which amount to trade guilds or unions.
The restrictions
which surround members of a caste are innumerable. Generally speaking a
person may not marry outside his caste, nor may he touch
or associate with a member of a lower caste. Certain of the high-caste Hindus
feel that they are profaned if even the shadow of a European or of the member
of a lower caste falls upon them or their food or anything which belongs to
them, and that they must thereupon perform elaborate rites of purification.
Lower yet than
the Sudras are the Pariahs or outcasts — a mass
of 60,000,000 people, one-sixth of all the population of India. These "untouchables" are
prohibited the use of public roads, bridges, and temples. They are forced to live outside
the villages, and are allowed to enter only such despised occupations as street-sweeping and leather-working. So defiling is
their touch that most Hindus would rather die than accept their help, and they are
not even allowed to draw water from the public well.
The average Hindu is a peaceful, patient person. " Life in India,"
says one writer, " is regarded, in a very serious spirit by which even the children are
subdued. You will never see
them romping at play, and their games are of the quietest description. They take
no pleasure whatever in teasing animals, and the birds and beasts of the
household are extraordinarily tame. They are not so
much petted as treated with the consideration due to members of the family; the
cultivator appeals to his bullocks as ' my brothers.'
"To adults life offers few pleasures.
Eating is a monotonous experience of the
plainest dishes. Drinking, for the respectable, is limited to water. There are
no attractions in sport or in physical exercises. Pairs and festivals give some excitement to the women who can
attend them; but the men derive their
pleasure rather from the gratification of a sense of dignity and importance
than from the exercise of the functions of mind or body."
The Lowly Tasks of the Women The position of Indian
women is not enviable. They are usually not
permitted to learn to read and write, but are closely confined to their homes,
where they perform all the menial tasks, 'They are not even permitted to sit
down to meals with their husbands, but must serve them in silence and take what
they leave. A recent census showed that more than 2,000,000 girls were married
before the age of ten. The Sarda Act of 1930 penalises
marriage until the bride is fourteen and the bridegroom eighteen.
Although
the practice of suttee,
which allowed a Hindu widow to burn herself on the pyre of her husband, has
been stamped out, a widow must keep her head shaved, give away all her jewels,
and usually performs the most menial labour for her
dead husband's family,
At
the dawn of history India was already famous for its wealth, its gold and
silver and precious stones, its fine silks, its spices and, drugs and
rare woods. Treasures from India reached the ancient courts of Assyria and Egypt.
To-day
India's wealth is not reckoned in gold or precious stones, but in
the products of the fields. Agriculture is the most important
industry, 230,000,000 of the population, out of a total of 350,000,000,
making their living by farming, forestry, and
stock-raising. And with the increased development of irrigation and
transportation facilities the industry is growing rapidly. The millet grains
form the chief crop, for these hardy, drought-resisting, and prolific cereals
are the staple food of the lower classes. Almost the entire crop is
consumed at home. Next in importance are rice, wheat, and pulses (lentils,
chick-peas, pigeon-peas, etc.).
The Widespread Use of Oil Oil-seeds and oil-producing plants, such as linseed,
rape, mustard, sesamum, ground-nuts, castor plants,
etc., are extensively grown, for the natives use vast quantities of oil for
cooking, for their primitive lamps, and for anointing themselves, and
large quantities of these oils are exported.
Cotton
is one of India's most valuable products (see Cotton). Other crops of
importance are barley, jute, sugar-cane, indigo, tea,
coconuts, tobacco, and poppies for the production of opium.
It is estimated that there are more
cattle in India than in any
other part of the world, but they are a hump-backed species of inferior
quality, and since the religion of the great majority of Hindus forbids eating
beef, the animals are chiefly
used for draught purposes. Half-tamed buffaloes are also used in many sections
for farm labour, and in the northwest camels are
the principal work animals.
Among
the most important manufacturing establishments of India are cotton-mills, jute-mills, and sugar-mills. Coal, gold,
and petroleum are the leading mineral products. Railway development
has proceeded further in India than in any other part of Asia. About 40,000
miles are now in operation, consisting of broad-gauge trunk lines connecting
the large centres of population, and a network of
narrow-gauge lines. The rivers and
canals carry much inland
traffic.
The currency of India
is based upon the rupee, a silver coin worth about one shilling and fourpence.
Tlie lesser coins rank as follows: 12 pies make one anna and 16 annas make one rupee.
The native custom is to call 100,000 rupees
a lakh, and 100 lakhs are
called a crore.
The early
history of India is mostly lost in the mists of ancient traditions. The great Hindu epic poem " Rig-Veda,"
written about 1500 b.c., tells
of the old struggle between the Aryan invaders and the " black people
" who were in possession of the soil. By the 6th century b.c., 16 Aryan states had been established
south of the Himalayas, and Brahmanism was nourishing. In 327 b.c. the armies of Alexander the Great
reached the Hydaspes River, and the Greek settlements
he left behind made a profound impression upon the art and literature of
the country. The next 13 centuries were marked by a succession of bitter
struggles for power between Indian princes, and by a succession of invasions, among which stand out clearly the inroads of the White Huns in the 5th and 6th centuries a.d.
The first attacks of the Mohammedans
were repelled, but in the llth century the Turkish ; leader Mahmud established the Ghazni dynasty in the land. The great Mongol invasion of
Genghis Khan followed in 1219, and in 1397 Tamerlane's Tatar hordes poured into
India (see Mongols). In 1526 Baber, who was a descendant of Genghis Khan
as well as Tamerlane, seized the throne at Delhi, establishing the great
Mogul empire, which remained intact until the close of the 18th century.
The
south of India was never completely conquered, but the empire of the north, under such rulers as Akbar and Shah Jehan, was perhaps the most brilliant in
the history of the Orient. During the reign of Aurungzebe (1618-1707), the last of the "
Great Moguls," arose the
power of the Mahrattas in the south, which so
undermined the Mogul rule that
its last years present a picture of weakness and decay.
Meanwhile the struggle between
Europeans for supremacy in Indian affairs had begun. With Vasco da Gama's discovery of the ocean route around the Cape of Good
Hope in 1498 there began a race for the rich Indian trade between Portugal,
Holland, and France. In 1600 the English East India Company joined in
the rivalry, and soon had trading posts at Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta (then
called Fort William). The history of India from that time forward deals chiefly
with the long commercial struggles of these European rivals. The French
enlisted and drilled native troops, and with these interfered so successfully
in native quarrels that by 1751 the Carnatic and the Deccan
were under French influence.
British
Influence Restored
Just as British influence was
threatened with extinction in India, the genius of Robert Clive turned the
tables. First his storm, and successful holding of Arcot
in 1751 and then his victory at Plassey in 1757
overthrew the French power and laid the foundations of the rule of the English
East India Company (see Olive, Robert). Later mere trading rights
gradually grew into political rule. It was one of the strangest conquests in
history, this by which a private trading company conquered an empire by the use
chiefly of soldiers (Sepoys) raised in that land
itself.
Warren Hastings, who became Governor-General for the
East India Company in 1774, built soundly upon the foundation Clive had laid. He
subdued the Mahratta princes and crushed the famous Hyder Alt, sultan of Mysore (see Hastings, Warren).
In the next 30 years the rule of the British Company extended over a great part
of India. Between 1848 and 1856 the Sikhs were defeated and the Punjab was
annexed.
But certain high-handed methods employed by the British
Company, together with the teachings of missionaries and the advance of
European customs, had stirred up a great wave of unrest. In 1857 a rumour was circulated among the native troops enlisted
under the British flag that the cartridge papers, which the soldiers must tear
with their teeth, were greased with the fat of cows and pigs — the former held
sacred by the Hindus, and the latter abhorred by the Mohammedans. This rumour set fire to the tinder of discontent, and the
great Indian Mutiny of 1857 was the result. The insurrection spread rapidly in
the north. Nana Sahib, a Mahratta prince, besieged a
British force in Cawnpore, and, after promising safe-conduct, treacherously
massacred his prisoners, including women and children. Another British force
was besieged in Lucknow, but after the commander, Sir
Henry Lawrence, and many others had been killed the survivors were rescued. Not
until Delhi was captured in September was the mutiny broken.
The End of "John Company" This
tragic outbreak put an end to the political rule of " John
Company." In 1858 its rights of government were transferred to the
British Government, and the last flames of the mutiny were quenched. Since then
greater respect has been shown to the religious and other susceptibilities of the people, and about
two-fifths of India is still left to be ruled by its
native princes.
The remaining history of India is the history of
rapid industrial and commercial development, enlivened by occasional border warfare, particularly
on the Afghanistan frontier. The spectres of famine
and plague constantly hang over the land. The educated Indians, particularly
the Hindus, have demanded an increasing share of self-government.
India's Help in the World War
At the outset of the World War, Germany counted upon
a repetition of the Indian Mutiny to cripple Great Britain's fighting strength,
and secret emissaries of the Berlin
government agitated among the Mohammedans, urging them to join hands with their
Turkish co-religionists in a holy war upon
the British. But these schemes failed, and India contributed a generous share
towards the cause of the Allies,
not only in money but in fighting men. At the close of the war,
however, unrest spread throughout the country and culminated in strikes
and riots in many of the larger cities.
British India, which comprises about three-fifths of the
total area of India and more than three-fourths of its inhabitants, is administered in England by a Secretary of State for India.
The executive authority in India
is in the hands of a
Governor-General or Viceroy, appointed
by the British Government. He is
assisted by an Executive
Council in India, consisting of the heads of the various departments of government.
The Indian legislature—composed in part of native Indians—consists of two chambers, the Council of State and the Legislative
Government of British Provinces
Each of the 15 British provinces has its own
Governor, nominated by the Viceroy. By an act of the British
Parliament passed in 1919 eight of the provinces. were
granted a considerable measure of self-government. Legislative
councils, containing at least 70 per cent. of
elected members were set up, bearing a relation to the Indian legislature
similar to that between the provincial and Dominion legislatures in Canada.
The native states, about 700 in number, are governed by their own princes, ministers, or councils,
under the advice of a British Resident assigned by the Viceroy.
Some are required to pay an
annual tribute. They are restrained from
making war or entering into alliances
with one another or with foreign powers. The size of their
armies is restricted, and in
case of gross misrule the British
Government reserves the right to
interfere. But in most other matters the princes have supreme authority. British rule has brought factories, railways, hospitals, police systems, Western courts, modernized cities,
schools, and universities, and
brisk trade. But to quote the
Earl of Ronaldshay, "the organization of industries on the
lines evolved by Western nations is something
which is altogether alien to the
genius of the Indian people."
The difference between the races was greatly intensified after the
World War. During the conflict, India
loyally sent money and men to the aid of Britain. These men
returned with a new sense of the
¥importance of India to
the Empire, and demanded a
larger share in the government. India
signed the Peace Treaty and was made an independent
member of the League of Nations.
But many of the Indians had expected
freedom, or at least home rule. Mr. E. S. Montagu, Secretary of State
for India, had announced the policy of the British Government as increasing "
the gradual development of self-governing
institutions with a view to the progressive realization of responsible
government in India as an integral part of the British Empire."
Many expected immediate fulfilment, which was not implied.
Discontent became open revolt.
In a
rebellion against foreign domination and Western civilization, the
strange ascetic, Mohandas Gandhi, initiated the Swaraj,
or Home Rule, movement. He urged passive resistance and tried to end the cruel
caste system and the wasteful hate between Mohammedans and Hindus, ro that India might present a united Front
against everything British—government, imports, machinery,
philosophy. Another faction of Swaraj, led by Ghitta Ranjan Das, urged violence. In 1922 Gandhi was sentenced to
prison for sedition, and although he was released in 1924, his imprisonment
increased Indian resistance and his own popularity.
At the same
time communism was gaining, and the country was more and more torn by
religious feuds between Hindus and Moslems. These riots became more frequent
in 1920, and in the following year the British government appointed a
commission with Sir John Simon as chairman to inquire into the advisability of
altering the constitution, and to investigate all phases of the government of
British India.
All during
1929 Indian Nationalism grew in ardour. In 1930
Gandhi demanded immediate dominion status for India; when it was not granted,
he inaugurated his "Salt Rebellion," attacking the government
monopoly on salt. Rioting broke out afresh and Gandhi and his associates in the
campaign were imprisoned.
The report of the Simon
Commission outlined a new constitutional organization for British
India on the basis of a federation
of autonomous provinces with
the exception of Burma, which was to
develop separately towards
self-government. A "round-table conference" of British and Indian leaders to consider the details of such a scheme
met in London in 1930.
Finally,
after a series of conversations between Gandhi and the Governor-general, an
agreement was reached whereby the Indian National Congress would discontinue
the passive resistance campaign and take part in another London
round-table discussion in 1931. The failure of the conference signalled the reopening of the civil disobedience campaign
in India. Early in 1932 Gandhi and many other leaders were imprisoned, and the
Indian government took vigorous steps to repress demonstrations.
Architecture
is the chief art of India, and it has always been distinguished by the same
highly decorative style which gives such unique beauty
to Indian metal work, jewellery, pottery, and textile
patterns. Because most of the
early Hindu buildings were of wood and clay, India contains no relics of
architecture such as have been left to us in Egypt and Greece, and it is open
to doubt whether the early Brahman faith encouraged the building of temples.
With the advent of Buddhism
and Jainism, monasteries and shrines sprang up over the land-When to these early styles
Mohammedan influences were added from the llth
century onward, India developed a varied art of building which gave to the
world some of the most beautiful structures in existence. The distinctive
feature of Indian architecture is the delicacy and elaborateness of its
details. Some of the temples are covered with mazes of carved figures in unbelievable
profusion.
Many
of the shrines are cut out bodily from the rock, such as the famous underground
temples on the island of Elephanta in Bombay harbour. For sheer elegance and grace nothing can compare,
however, to the buildings put up by the Great Moguls, such as the world-famous Taj Mahal, and those erected by
their Rajput rivals, including noted palaces built on
the islands of Lake Pichola in Udaipur.
Hindu
painting, occupied as it has
always been with a grotesque religious imagery, makes no profound appeal to
Western eyes. Sculpture suffers from the same fault, and while many of the
pagan gods are impressive because of their size and ornamentation, they cannot
be called truly artistic. Much more fascinating is the work of the Indian
craftsmen, such as the enamelling done by the Sikhs,
and the damascening of metal objects in gold and silver wire, which is practised in Cashmere, in various parts of the Punjab, and
in the state of Hyderabad.
The
earliest Hindu literature consists of the Vedic hymns, of which the "Rig-Veda
" is the most ancient collection. This consists of 1,017 short poems, giving a definite picture of a high
civilization existing about the time the Aryan invaders had reached the banks of the Indus and were fighting the "dark
people" to the south. To the Vedic poems were attached prose works called "Brahmanas," explaining the duties of the priests; then were added the "
Sutras," telling of laws
and ceremonies; and later the "Upanishads," treating of God and the
soul; the "Aranyakas," giving directions
for leading a holy life; and
finally the "Puranas" or sacred traditions.
During
the period from the 1st to the
8th century a.d. were composed a number of Sanskrit
epics and dramas filled with adventure and romance. The old Hindu fables of animals, which were translated into the Persian as early as
the 6th century a.d. and so found their way into Europe,
are said to be the basis of many of the familiar nursery stories that have
charmed the children of England and America. A New National Literature
Under
the influence of modem education
many Hindu writers are developing a new and interesting national
literature. Most conspicuous
among these is Sir Rabindranath Tagore
(bom 1861), who has attempted to embody
in his poems, tales, parables, and dramas the advanced ideas of European civilization, while keeping the best
traditions of ancient Hindu idealism.
In 1913 this eminent Hindu writer was awarded the Nobel prize for literature, and in 1915 he was knighted, but
later renounced this honour for political reasons.
Among his well-known works are "
The Crescent Moon: Child Poems,"
"The Gardener," and "
Gora," a novel.
Indian music is peculiar to Western ears in
that it contains no harmony. It is
made up of melody and rhythm
only. There is no accompaniment
to the melody as in Western music. No
two different tones are sounded at the same time. Several instruments are
rarely used together, and when they are they play in unison. Songs, which are of the greatest
importance in Indian life, are sung in unison also. Among instruments,
drums and flutes are favoured. There are also
stringed instruments, some of ancient origin.
Intellectual Awakening
There
is in India, also, a great revival of interest in science. Centuries ago Hindu astronomers and mathematicians were highly honoured and contributed an important share to the
development of knowledge. They exchanged ideas with the Greeks at the time of Alexander's conquest, and in the 9th century important
Hindu scientific works were translated by the Arabs and so reached Europe, but
with the advent of the
Mohammedans science declined, and
it has remained for the universities of Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, Allahabad,
the Punjab, Patna, Nagpur, Andhra,
Agra, Rangoon, Lucknow, Dacca, Annamalai, and Delhi-and their large number of affiliated colleges to bring back the traditional love of
learning to the Indian youth. There is a Hindu University at Benares and a Mohammedan University
at Aligarh.
Indian Ocean
Two thousand
years ago, when mariners were still
venturing only on the most cautious coastal
voyages along the Atlantic
coast,
the Indian Ocean could already boast established trade routes, and the Egyptian Greeks boldly made their way
across the open sea between Arabia and Hindustan through they possessed neither
chart nor compass. They had nothing to fear
if they avoided the hurricane months
from December to April, for they had observed that the monsoon winds blow half
the year in one direction, half the year in the opposite.
Washing
the shores of Asia on the north, the Antarctic continent on the south, Africa
on the west, and the East Indian islands, Australia, and
Tasmania on the east, the Indian Ocean is the third largest of the five oceans.
Its length from north to south is somewhat over 6,500 miles, its
breadth 4,000 to 6,000 miles, and its area about 27,500,000 square miles. The average depth is between 11,000
and 14,000 feet, the deepest sounding so far being 20,340 feet off the south-east coast of
Java.
At
Cape Comorin, the southern tip of India, the Indian Ocean forks into the Bay of Bengal on the
east and the Arabian Sea on the west, the latter branching again into the
Persian Gulf- Beyond the Arabian peninsula it connects with the Red Sea. From Asia several great rivers enter it—the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, the Irrawaddy, and
the Indus; and from Africa the Zambezi and the Limpopo. Its great islands are Ceylon and Madagascar, the rest of them being mostly small
groups.